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Neuron 77 , 35— Spike timing-dependent long-term depression requires presynaptic NMDA receptors. Furthermore, the discovery of STDP at the beginning of this century, generated interest in the influence of timing and frequency on the parameters required to induce synaptic plasticity Lisman and Spruston, , ; Markram et al. This was in part because traditional forms of plasticity are provoked with protocols based on stimulation frequencies that are sometimes far from physiological, and they are therefore unlikely to occur in vivo.
Thus, a key future challenge will be to determine the mechanisms, rules and roles of STDP in vivo Schulz, In this regard, it will be important to define the precise influence of neuromodulators on STDP Pawlak et al.
In addition, it will be necessary to develop a unitary mechanistic framework that simplifies and explains the tremendous variability in the properties of STDP in different brain regions and synapses. Finally, more detailed studies will be required to define the recently demonstrated role of glial cells in synaptic plasticity e. Synaptic plasticity is intrinsic to the development and function of the brain, and it is essential for learning and memory processes.
Thus, investigating how synaptic plasticity occurs and how it is modified during specific developmental time windows will provide key information as to how the brain develops. Furthermore, the translational relevance of animal studies of synaptic plasticity must be further clarified in the future.
Studies in human tissue indicate that synaptic plasticity of human synapses is a candidate mechanism for learning and memory, although direct evidence of the actual cellular mechanism is lacking Mansvelder et al. As observed in animal studies, activity-dependent, Hebbian-like synaptic changes can be induced in the human brain in vivo , although with differences in the specific plasticity rules Mansvelder et al. Current electrophysiological and imaging techniques commonly used in animal models can be used for in vitro experiments with human tissue from dissected patients.
However, a major challenge for the future is to study synaptic plasticity in the human brain in vivo. To this end, non-invasive techniques like transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS may represent a step forward Polania et al.
On a different note, plasticity is also a phenomenon that aids brain recovery after the damage produced by events like stroke or traumatic injury. Indeed, the ability to manipulate specific neuronal pathways and synapses has important implications for therapeutic and clinical interventions that will improve our health. Promising therapies like deep brain stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, neuropharmacology, exercise, cognitive training, or feedback using real-time functional magnetic resonance Cramer et al.
A better understanding of the mechanisms governing neuroplasticity after brain damage or nerve lesion would help improve patient's quality of life, eventually saving costs to National Health Systems worldwide. Therefore, the study of synaptic plasticity has clear consequences that reach beyond the research environment. Increasing our understanding of how learning and memory processes are modified during development, and of how the brain modifies its activity and recovers after damage, should be considered in some depth by policy makers.
In the light of the above, such efforts are likely to provide social benefits in the spheres of Healthcare and Education, thereby aiding long-term socio-economic planning.
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abraham, W. Metaplasticity: the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Trends Neurosci. Abrahamsson, T. Differential regulation of evoked and spontaneous release by presynaptic NMDA receptors.
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Neuroplasticity does not consist of a single type of morphological change, but rather includes several different processes that occur throughout an individual's lifetime. Many types of brain cells are involved in neuroplasticity, including neurons, glia, and vascular cells. FACT 2 : Neuroplasticity has a clear age-dependent determinant. Although plasticity occurs over an individual's lifetime, different types of plasticity dominate during certain periods of one's life and are less prevalent during other periods.
FACT 3 : Neuroplasticity occurs in the brain under two primary conditions: 1. During normal brain development when the immature brain first begins to process sensory information through adulthood developmental plasticity and plasticity of learning and memory. FACT 4 : The environment plays a key role in influencing plasticity. In addition to genetic factors, the brain is shaped by the characteristics of a person's environment and by the actions of that same person.
Developmental Plasticity: Synaptic Pruning Gopnick et al. Following birth, the brain of a newborn is flooded with information from the baby's sense organs. This sensory information must somehow make it back to the brain where it can be processed. To do so, nerve cells must make connections with one another, transmitting the impulses to the brain.
Continuing with the telephone wire analogy, like the basic telephone trunk lines strung between cities, the newborn's genes instruct the "pathway" to the correct area of the brain from a particular nerve cell. For example, nerve cells in the retina of the eye send impulses to the primary visual area in the occipital lobe of the brain and not to the area of language production Wernicke's area in the left posterior temporal lobe.
The basic trunk lines have been established, but the specific connections from one house to another require additional signals. Over the first few years of life, the brain grows rapidly. As each neuron matures, it sends out multiple branches axons, which send information out, and dendrites, which take in information , increasing the number of synaptic contacts and laying the specific connections from house to house, or in the case of the brain, from neuron to neuron.
At birth, each neuron in the cerebral cortex has approximately 2, synapses. By the time an infant is two or three years old, the number of synapses is approximately 15, synapses per neuron Gopnick, et al.
For example, there is an area of the brain that is devoted to movement of the right arm. Damage to this part of the brain will impair movement of the right arm. In other words, neuroplasticity is not synonymous with the brain being infinitely malleable.
In a study of Caenorhabditis elegans , a type of nematode used as a model organism in research , it was found that losing the sense of touch enhanced the sense of smell. This suggests that losing one sense rewires others.
As in the developing infant, the key to developing new connections is environmental enrichment that relies on sensory visual, auditory, tactile, smell and motor stimuli.
The more sensory and motor stimulation a person receives, the more likely they will be to recover from brain trauma. For example, some of the types of sensory stimulation used to treat stroke patients includes training in virtual environments, music therapy and mentally practising physical movements.
The basic structure of the brain is established before birth by your genes.
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